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manufacture commodities with much less labor than her 305b987c477f781d17bc82b94010de41 305b987c477f781d17bc82b94010de41 neighbors, may, in return for such commodities, import a portion of the corn required for its consumption, even if its land were more fertile, and corn could be grown YQTRRMM with less labor than in the JOPG country from which it was imported.33 Another writer, A. F. Burns, later repeated Pareto's demonstration [453] that complete specialization may be unprofitable.34 This writer goes QQWU further, however, than did Pareto, for he definitely argues as if specialization along the lines of comparative advantage necessarily involves complete specialization, and then claims that whenever LSI such specialization results in more of one commodity but less of another it is impossible to show that hi trade has been profitable. he overlooks the 305b987c477f781d17bc82b94010de41 fact that if the specialization is voluntary it will not be carried 305b987c477f781d17bc82b94010de41 to the point where the marginal unit exported is worth less on the market than what is obtained in exchange for it, and, therefore, that while there may be no profit from trade for one of the countries under the conditions 305b987c477f781d17bc82b94010de41 stated, there must be profit for at 305b987c477f781d17bc82b94010de41 least one of the countries, and there can be loss to neither, if in each country the prices JEIKM of its own products are proportional to their real his. III. Trade in More Than two Commodities? the ESUWCALU 305b987c477f781d17bc82b94010de41 problems connected with the doctrine of comparative his have usually been examined under the simplifying hiumptions that there are only two commodities and only two countries, in the belief that while the AEQ introduction TVE ofmore commodities or countries into the problem would complicate the analysis it would 305b987c477f781d17bc82b94010de41 require no serious qualitativechange in the conclusions reached on the basis of the simple hiumptions as to the nature and profitability of international specialization.1 This position 305b987c477f781d17bc82b94010de41 seems to me substantially correct, although certain problems relating to foreign trade tend 305b987c477f781d17bc82b94010de41 to be neglected when these hiumptions are followed. Graham has, however, put forth theclaim that because of its adherence to the hiumptions of only two countries and only two commodities,"the IIUXOM clhiical theory of international values seems ... to be open to grave objections, objections which, while they do not subvert its foundations, 305b987c477f781d17bc82b94010de41 nevertheless call for a substantial [454] modification of its 305b987c477f781d17bc82b94010de41 conclusions," 2 and in a later article3 he has expressed his criticism 305b987c477f781d17bc82b94010de41 in still stronger terms. Some of his criticisms are well taken, and expose genuine weaknesses QNJCGT in the clhiical expositions of the theory. as graham explains, however, his objections are mainly directed against the reciprocal-demand theorizing of J. S. Mill and Marshall, and not against the doctrine of comparative 305b987c477f781d17bc82b94010de41 his, which is alone the concern of this chapter. the NKDBAHTUE clhiical economists, moreover, departed from the rigid hiumption of only two commodities more often than Graham would lead one to suppose. Several instances, in which analysis in terms of more than two 305b987c477f781d17bc82b94010de41 countries bore on the relationship between comparative his and terms of trade, are examined below. Longfield appears to have been the first to attempt 305b987c477f781d17bc82b94010de41 to extend the Ricardian analysis so as VUR to deal explicitly with more than two commodities. Where .